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The final
flourishing of Buddhist art in India took place in the subsequent
mediaeval period in the Pala Empire, as by then the advance of Islam which
finally overran Bihar and Bengal in the 13th century, had commenced. By
the time this elegant black stone Buddha stele was sculpted, the Buddha
image had spread north into Tibet, China and Japan and south to Sri Lanka
and Southeast Asia. The combination of a powerful aesthetic and the
academic schools of Buddhism brought about a subsequent reconsideration of
the image in some of those Buddhist regions, for instance in Burma and in
Lan Na, northern Thailand. The Pala image is the final essentially simple
Indian form. This example is also one of the last of the Indian styles to
evolve from the Sarnath image, as another form, the regal crowned Buddha,
by now also existed thanks to the teaching of the monasteries at Nalanda
and Kurkihar. The first thing which strikes the viewer about this Buddha
stele is, highly polished black stone from which it was sculpted. This is
sometimes called "Phyllite" or"Rajmahal Schist" and is found in Bihar. Its
fine texture made it ideal for polishing and, unlike the sandstones of
Sarnath and further west, it did not need to be painted, the gloss of its
polished surface allowing a play of light which vitalised the image.
When the Gupta empire crumbled in the 6th century, this eastern
region of Bihar and Bengal, historically known as Maghada, appears to have
remained unified whilst numerous small Rajput principalities sprung up to
the west. In the 8th century, the Palas came to power in the region. The
second Pala ruler, Dharmapala, became immensely powerful and established
an empire by his defeat of the powerful Rajput Pratiharas. Dharmapala
consolidated an empire whose wealth lay in a combination of agriculture
along the fertile Ganges plain and international trade. Cultured men, with
a particular interest in poetry, the Palas seem not to have been great
patrons of the visual arts, but nevertheless, they provided an environment
where artists could be appreciated. In the 11th century, the Palas were to
encounter the ambitious Cholas of south India, who, having defeated them
in battle, forced them to offer allegiance in the form of offerings of
Ganges water to the Chola royal temples. They appear to have been content
to encourage both Hindu and Buddhist practices in the empire, in the
knowledge that they both controlled the lands through which the sacred
River Ganges flowed and where Buddhism had first been established.
Eastern India was considered the "heartland" of Buddhism since it
was here that the historic Buddha, Gautama Shakyamuni, spent his life.
Born at Lumbini, in the Terai of southern Nepal, he achieved his
enlightenment at Bodh Gaya and then preached his first sermon at Sarnath.
The rest of his long life was spent travelling and preaching in the
region, and he finally died at Kushambi. Thereafter the region drew
pilgrims from Buddhism's widest boundaries, all intent on travelling in
his footsteps in the hope of achieving similar enlightenment. Buddhism has
always attracted academic debate as the ancient texts were taught,
discussed and reassessed. Around the 6th century the great monasteries of
Nalanda and Kurkihar were established and their esoteric teachings
attracted visitors who in turn disseminated their ideas in their own
homelands. Naturally, as art schools were a well established, and now
essential facet of Buddhism elsewhere, the great monasteries in the
"heartland" of Buddhism had to be seen to be patrons of the finest, purest
Buddhist art, producing images which would inspire and impress. The
monasteries attracted artists to fulfill this need; travelling teachers
and visiting pilgrims provided plenty of opportunity for their to work to
be bought by enthusiastic patrons.
This stele depicts the Buddha
attended by two diminutive figures. To his left the crowned figure seen
raising his arm is Vajrapani. To his right stands another bodhisattva,
possibly Padmapani. The Buddha's now missing right hand was originally
held in Varadamudra, the granting of boons and his left hand, partially
surviving, holds the hem of his Sanghati, or monk's robe. He stands on a
double lotus throne which projects in front of the horizontal line of the
base. This suggests that this stele was inspired by freestanding bronze
figures placed on separately constructed platforms. The projecting central
image would be easy to light with lamps surrounding the lotus base. Behind
the Buddha, the semi-circular prabha (back plate) has a raised and
ribboned border with an outer edge of flames.
Iconic images of the
Buddha from Mathura, 1st century A.D. onwards often depict him seated,
flanked by two small standing attendant figures. In early examples these
are sometimes identified as the Vedic gods, Indra and Brahma but these
become Vajrapani (who corresponds with Indra) and Padmapani. The theme
continues at Sarnath, where there are many examples where the two figures
flank a standing Buddha. In this stele, Vajrapani is actually turning the
thunderbolt in his hand, providing a forceful contrast both to the Buddha
and to the other attendant Bodhisattva, whose hands are held in an
attitude of prayer.
Stylistically an early 11th century date can
be considered appropriate. From the Sarnath period (5th century) onwards,
standing Buddhas were depicted with their weight more on the right leg and
the left slightly forward; this developed more strongly in the ensuing
centuries and may have been influenced by Srivijaya and Dvaravati, two
kingdoms of Southeast Asia where the bronze figures of the Buddha have a
distinct S-shape. This reached its most extreme form in the 13th-14th
century with the so-claled "Walking Buddha" of Sukothai. Sarnath Buddhas
hold their left hand low but, from the 8th century Pala images begin to
show the elbow bent with the hand close to the shoulder, which introduces
a natural tension, animating the figure and suggesting the gentle energy
of someone caught in discourse. The Buddha of the 11th century seems far
more approachable than his 5th century inspiration.
The Sarnath
Buddhas have a somewhat flat torso, maintaining the Mathura tradition from
which they developed. However, in Bihar from the 10th century onwards the
so-called Gomukha torso, which may have originated in this region, was
introduced. Both Hindu and Buddhist images display a torso form which
resembles the head of a bull, the nipples representing the eyes and the
protruding stomach the nose. This is clearly apparent here. Unlike later
Mathura and Gandhara images, where the drapery was carved in heavy folds,
at Sarnath the robe became plain, muslin like and clinging to the form of
the body. In Bihar, the drapery reappears in the 7th century, although in
the form of a light garment suitable for a warm climate and which allows
the fine body proportions to show. This is what we see here. Hindu gods
were understood to be physically beautiful and in a climate where Hindu
and Buddhist beliefs existed side by side it was inconceivable that the
Buddha should be less handsome than his Brahmanical counterparts. The oval
face and snailshell curled hair with slight widow's peak, is in keeping
with Sarnath prototypes. The eyes, instead of the rigidly downcast oval,
have become a more complicated form with a serpentine upper lid. The
implacable expression of earlier images has become more gentle and
sensitive. It will be noted that the head is placed at an angle to
compliment the curve of the body. Rather than looking outwards, the Buddha
is listening to and absorbing the prayers he is offered.
The flame
border of the prabha is a device which developed in the Pala period and
replaces the crenellated form which survived from the 2nd century. Flames
are synonymous with knowledge and they form the outer border, effectively
guarding the figure within but at the same time announcing to the viewer
that here is a figure who deserves attention. Within the flames the raised
arched ridge balances the drapery of the Buddha's robe, the two
effectively forming an oval frame around his head. Horizontally the entire
stele is divided into three, the Buddha's shoulders marking the top third,
the heads of the Bodhisattvas and his swaying hips the lower third.
Buddhist belief is summed up as "Buddha, Dharma, Sangha", i.e. the Buddha,
the Law and the Community, and the three divisions of the image may be a
conscious reminder of this. Vertically, as well, the stele divides into
almost equal thirds marked by the three figures. The resultant diagram,
nine equal sized rectangles, could be seen as a form of mandala. Whilst
the whole effect is harmonious and appealing, it is also significant and
ensures the spiritual efficacy of the stele.
The
Insription:
Transliteration: ye dharma hetu prabhava he-
(*tum tesam tathagato hy avadat tesam ca) yo nirodho evam (vadi
mahasramanah)
Translation: Those things which have a cause as
their origin, their cause has been stated by the Tathagata; their
cessation too the great sramana (aesthetic practitioner) has stated.
*Italicised text would have been inscribed on the missing upper
stele
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Asher, Frederick M.: The
Art of Eastern India 300 - 800, Minneapolis, 1980
Czuma, Stanislaw: Kushan
Sculpture, Images of Early India, Cleveland, 1985
Deva, Krishna: Gupta Art
at Sarnath and Varanasi, in Khandalavala, Karl (ed.) The Art of the
Guptas, Bombay, 1991
Getty, Alice: The Gods
of Northern Buddhism, Oxford, 1914, 1928, New York, 1988
Huntington,
Susan M: The Pala-Sena Schools of Sculpture, Leiden, 1984
Thapar,
Romila: A History of India, Volume I |
